Olive Oil for Women's Health: Evidence-Based Guide to Hormone Balance, Menopause & Period Pain (2026)

• Last Updated: February 2026

  
  

Quick Answer

High-polyphenol olive oil contains oleocanthal and other polyphenols that inhibit COX-1 and COX-2 enzymes (reducing prostaglandin-driven menstrual pain), support insulin sensitivity in PCOS, and may help manage menopausal symptoms through anti-inflammatory mechanisms. Clinical studies show 25ml daily extra virgin olive oil reduces dysmenorrhea pain severity significantly and improves metabolic markers in women with polycystic ovary syndrome.

Understanding Olive Oil and Women's Health

Olive oil has been a cornerstone of the Mediterranean diet for thousands of years, but only recently has science begun to quantify its specific benefits for women's hormonal and reproductive health. The key lies in understanding which compounds are responsible for these effects and at what doses clinical benefits occur.

Most clinical research has used standard extra virgin olive oil at doses of 20-30ml daily. However, a critical factor often overlooked is polyphenol concentration—the actual amount of bioactive compounds per milliliter varies dramatically between oils, from 50mg/kg in supermarket varieties to over 2000mg/kg in specialized high-phenolic oils. This concentration difference determines how much volume you need to consume to achieve therapeutic polyphenol doses demonstrated in clinical studies.

The Anti-Inflammatory Mechanism: How Oleocanthal Works

Oleocanthal

COX Enzyme Inhibition

In 2005, researchers at the Monell Chemical Senses Center made a groundbreaking discovery published in Nature. Gary K. Beauchamp and colleagues identified that oleocanthal—a polyphenol compound in extra virgin olive oil—inhibits cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes in the same way as ibuprofen¹.

The research team found that oleocanthal inhibits both COX-1 and COX-2 enzymes, which are responsible for prostaglandin synthesis. While structurally dissimilar to ibuprofen, oleocanthal produces the same pharmacological action, acting as a natural non-steroidal anti-inflammatory compound¹.

This mechanism is particularly relevant for women because prostaglandins—especially PGF2α and PGE2—are the primary mediators of menstrual cramps (dysmenorrhea) and contribute to inflammatory symptoms during menopause.

Period Pain Relief: Clinical Evidence

Clinical Trial Results

A 2015 single-blind crossover clinical trial conducted at Azad University directly compared extra virgin olive oil to ibuprofen for treating primary dysmenorrhea². The study enrolled 60 female students (ages 17-30) with moderate to severe menstrual pain.

Study Protocol:

• Group 1: 25ml extra virgin olive oil daily for 2 months (starting 2 weeks before menstruation)

• 4-week washout period

• Group 2: 400mg ibuprofen 3 times daily for first 3 days of menstruation

Results:

• Baseline pain severity: 6.6/10 (visual analog scale)

• After ibuprofen: Pain reduced to 3.8/10

• After olive oil: Pain reduced to 1.1/10

• Difference between treatments was statistically significant (P = 0.001)

The researchers noted that olive oil showed a gradual cumulative effect, with pain reduction becoming clinically significant in the first month of intervention, while ibuprofen required two months to reach similar significance².

Laboratory Mechanism Confirmation

A 2020 study published in Nutrients confirmed the mechanism through which olive oil reduces uterine contractions³. Using both ex vivo rat uterus models and in vivo mouse models, researchers at National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University demonstrated that:

• Olive oil extracts inhibited PGF2α-induced uterine contractions in a dose-dependent manner

• Oleocanthal specifically reduced uterine contraction amplitude and frequency

• The mechanism involved inhibition of COX-2 expression and reduction of phosphorylated proteins in the contraction signaling pathway

• Oxidative stress markers decreased significantly

The study concluded that extra virgin olive oil and oleocanthal can "effectively decrease oxidative stress and PGF2α-induced uterine hyper-contraction, representing a further treatment for dysmenorrhea"³.

Practical Application for Period Pain

Based on clinical evidence:

• Dose: 25ml (approximately 1.5 tablespoons) daily

• Timing: Begin 2 weeks before expected menstruation

• Duration: Continue through first 2-3 days of period

• Effect timeline: Pain reduction noticeable within first month; maximum benefit by month 2

• Polyphenol requirement: Anti-inflammatory effects require oils with >500mg/kg polyphenol content

Menopause Support: The Evidence

Olive Leaf Extract Research

While most research has focused on olive oil, related work on olive leaf extract (which contains similar polyphenols at higher concentrations) provides insights into menopause management.

A 2024 randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial published in Nutrients studied 60 postmenopausal women (ages 47-70) who received either 250mg olive leaf extract (containing 100mg oleuropein) or placebo daily for 12 weeks⁴.

Results:

• Overall menopause-specific quality of life (MENQoL) score significantly improved after 6 weeks (p = 0.027)

• Improvements maintained through 12 weeks

• Quality of life enhancement encompassed multiple symptoms: hot flashes, sleep disturbances, mood changes, decreased sexual desire, and physical discomfort

The researchers noted this was "the first randomized controlled trial to investigate the effects of olive polyphenols on postmenopausal symptoms"⁴.

Metabolic Syndrome and Menopause

A comprehensive 2020 review in Nutrients examined olive oil's role in managing metabolic syndrome associated with menopause⁵. The analysis found:

• Mediterranean diet with olive oil as primary fat source reduces diabetes risk in high olive oil consumption groups (relative risk = 0.84, 95% CI: 0.77-0.92)

• Olive oil supplementation in type 2 diabetes associated with more pronounced HbA1c and fasting glucose reductions

• Menopausal women face accelerated metabolic syndrome development due to estrogen decline and increased androgen/estrogen ratio

• Olive oil's monounsaturated fats and polyphenols address multiple metabolic syndrome components simultaneously

The review emphasized that olive oil intake shows particular promise for menopausal women given the "increase in visceral obesity, a strong determinant of insulin resistance" that accompanies hormonal changes⁵.

Bone Health in Postmenopausal Women

A 2015 study examining 12-month consumption of olive polyphenols in postmenopausal women with osteopenia found a 30% increase in serum osteocalcin—the structural protein used as scaffold for new bone formation⁶. This addresses a critical concern for postmenopausal women, as estrogen decline accelerates bone loss and fracture risk.

PCOS and Fertility: Metabolic Improvements

Mediterranean Diet and Insulin Resistance

Women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) frequently experience insulin resistance, which disrupts ovarian function and contributes to anovulation and hyperandrogenism. Research consistently shows Mediterranean diet patterns—with olive oil as the primary fat source—improve metabolic markers in PCOS.

A 2021 randomized controlled trial published in Lipids in Health and Disease compared three oils (canola, olive, sunflower) in 72 women with PCOS over 10 weeks⁷. While canola oil showed the most dramatic lipid profile improvements, olive oil consumption resulted in:

• Significant improvement in fatty liver severity

• Marked decrease in HOMA-IR (insulin resistance marker) compared to sunflower oil

• Benefits attributed to high monounsaturated fat content and dietary polyphenols

This aligns with systematic review evidence showing Mediterranean diet adherence in PCOS patients correlates with approximately 30% improvement in insulin sensitivity⁸.

Mechanism: Anti-Inflammatory Effects on Ovarian Function

The connection between olive oil and PCOS improvement appears mediated through reduction of chronic inflammation. PCOS is characterized by elevated inflammatory markers (C-reactive protein, interleukin-6) that interfere with ovarian function and insulin signaling⁸.

Olive oil polyphenols—particularly oleocanthal—suppress prostaglandin production and reduce systemic inflammation markers, potentially improving:

• Insulin sensitivity

• Ovarian response to hormonal signals

• Androgen-to-estrogen balance

• Ovulation regularity

Cardiovascular Protection

EUROLIVE Study Results

The EUROLIVE (Effect of Olive Oil Consumption on Oxidative Damage in European Populations) study was a landmark randomized crossover trial examining polyphenol effects in 200 healthy men⁹. While not specific to women, the findings have important implications:

Participants consumed 25ml daily of olive oils with three different polyphenol levels (low: 2.7mg/kg; medium: 164mg/kg; medium-high: 366mg/kg) for 3 weeks each, separated by washout periods.

Key findings:

• Linear decrease in total cholesterol/HDL ratio with increasing polyphenol content

• Linear decrease in oxidative stress markers with higher polyphenol oils

• Specific effects on LDL particles: high-polyphenol oil (366mg/kg) decreased apoB-100 by 5.94%, total LDL particles by 11.9%, and small dense LDL particles by 15.3%¹⁰

For women, these cardiovascular benefits are particularly relevant as:

• Women's cardiovascular risk increases dramatically after menopause

• PCOS is associated with 2x higher atherosclerosis risk¹¹

• Dyslipidemia commonly accompanies both PCOS and menopausal transition

Dosage Guidelines Based on Clinical Evidence

Health Goal	Daily Dose	Duration	Polyphenol Content	Oleaphen Equivalent*
Menstrual pain relief	25ml	Start 2 weeks before period	>800mg/kg	5ml
Menopause symptom management	20-30ml	Ongoing	>500mg/kg	5-ml
PCOS metabolic support	25ml	Minimum 10 weeks	>800mg/kg	5ml
Cardiovascular protection	25ml	Ongoing	>500mg/kg	5ml
General anti-inflammatory	20-30ml	Ongoing	>800mg/kg	5ml

Understanding polyphenol concentration:

Polyphenol concentration varies dramatically between oils:

• Standard grocery store EVOO: 50-100mg/kg (requires 40-120ml for equivalent effects)

• Quality EVOO: 250-350mg/kg (clinical study range)

• High-phenolic EVOO: 500-800mg/kg (2.5-4× more concentrated)

• Ultra-high phenolic: >1000mg/kg (5-10× more concentrated)

*Oleaphen contains 2,236mg/kg polyphenols (verified by LC-MS/MS testing), representing approximately 45× the concentration of the oils fond in supermarkets. This means 5ml Oleaphen delivers much higher polyphenol content to 25ml of standard EVOO used in studies.

Practical implications:

• Clinical benefits observed with 25ml standard EVOO (~5mg total polyphenols)

• Same polyphenol dose from 5ml ultra-high phenolic oil

• Volume matters for studies but polyphenol dose drives effects

• Learn more about polyphenol concentration and testing

Important notes:

• Effects are dose-dependent and cumulative—consistency matters more than occasional high doses

• Higher concentration oils allow therapeutic dosing without excessive caloric intake (5ml = 44 calories vs 25ml = 220 calories)

• Not all high-phenolic oils taste palatable at therapeutic doses; polyphenols create bitter, peppery sensation

Safety and Contraindications

Generally Recognized as Safe

Olive oil consumption at studied doses (20-30ml daily) has an extensive safety record. The Mediterranean diet—with olive oil as primary fat—has been studied in populations of millions over centuries without significant adverse effects.

Potential Considerations

Digestive adjustment: Some individuals experience loose stools when beginning 25-30ml daily olive oil. This typically resolves within 1 week. Starting with 10-15ml and gradually increasing can minimize this effect.

Caloric content: 25ml olive oil provides approximately 220 calories. This should be considered as part of total daily caloric intake, ideally replacing other fats rather than adding on top of existing dietary fat.

Medication interactions: While olive oil's COX-inhibiting effects are much milder than NSAIDs, women taking anticoagulants (warfarin) should consult healthcare providers, as olive oil has mild antiplatelet effects.

Surgery: Given antiplatelet effects, discontinue high-dose olive oil (>30ml daily) 2 weeks before scheduled surgery.

When to Consult Healthcare Provider

Discuss olive oil supplementation with your doctor if you:

• Take anticoagulant medications

• Have scheduled surgery

• Are pregnant with complications or high-risk factors

• Have inflammatory bowel disease

• Experience persistent digestive issues with olive oil

Important Clarification: Not Estrogenic

Olive oil polyphenols work through anti-inflammatory mechanisms (COX inhibition) rather than hormonal pathways. They do NOT:

• Increase estrogen levels

• Function as phytoestrogens

• Stimulate estrogen-sensitive tissues

This distinction makes olive oil appropriate for women with estrogen-sensitive conditions, though those with breast cancer history should still discuss with their oncologist.

Selecting Quality Olive Oil

Polyphenol Content Matters

Clinical benefits observed in studies required oils with meaningful polyphenol content. While most research didn't specify exact levels, we can infer requirements:

• Minimum effective: >150-200mg/kg (typical for quality EVOO)

• Medium-high phenolic: 300-500mg/kg (used in EUROLIVE study)

• High phenolic: 800-1200mg/kg (specialized producers)

• Ultra-high phenolic: >2000mg/kg (extremely rare)

Regular grocery store extra virgin olive oils typically contain 50-100mg/kg polyphenols, with significant variation based on:

• Olive variety (some varieties naturally higher in polyphenols)

• Harvest timing (earlier harvest = higher polyphenols)

• Processing method (cold-pressed, minimal processing)

• Storage and age (polyphenols degrade over time)

For context on what's possible with optimal cultivation: Oleaphen achieved 2,236mg/kg through early-harvest Kalamon olives and regenerative agriculture practices in Cyprus. This concentration allows therapeutic polyphenol doses in smaller volumes, relevant for women seeking anti-inflammatory benefits without consuming 25-30ml (220-270 calories) daily.

Key Quality Indicators

Look for:

• Harvest date within past 12 months

• Dark glass bottle or opaque container (protects from light oxidation)

• Third-party testing certifications (LC-MS/MS is gold standard)

• Specific polyphenol content stated (mg/kg)

• Origin information and traceability

  
  

Avoid:

• Clear bottles (light damages polyphenols)

• "Light" or "mild" olive oil (lower polyphenol content)

• Oils >18 months past harvest

• Very inexpensive oils (likely low polyphenol content)

• Generic "extra virgin" or "high Polyphenols" claims without testing verification

For women specifically seeking therapeutic doses for menstrual pain, menopause, or metabolic support, verify the actual polyphenol concentration through laboratory testing rather than relying on marketing claims. The difference between 200mg/kg and 2000mg/kg determines whether you need 25ml or 5ml daily to achieve clinical effect levels.

Explore verified high-phenolic options

Frequently Asked Questions

Can olive oil help with menstrual cramps?

Yes, clinical research demonstrates that 25ml daily extra virgin olive oil, started 2 weeks before menstruation, significantly reduces dysmenorrhea pain. An Iranian clinical trial found olive oil reduced pain from 6.6/10 to 1.1/10, outperforming ibuprofen which reduced pain to 3.8/10². The mechanism involves oleocanthal inhibiting COX-1 and COX-2 enzymes, blocking prostaglandin synthesis responsible for uterine contractions and pain. Effects are cumulative and typically noticeable within the first menstrual cycle of use.

Does olive oil increase estrogen levels?

No, olive oil does not increase estrogen production or blood estrogen levels. Unlike soy isoflavones or other phytoestrogens, olive oil polyphenols work primarily through anti-inflammatory mechanisms (COX enzyme inhibition) rather than hormonal pathways. The beneficial effects on menopause symptoms and reproductive health come from reducing inflammation and oxidative stress, not from estrogenic activity. This makes olive oil safe for women with estrogen-sensitive conditions, though those with cancer history should still consult their healthcare team.

How much olive oil should I take daily for women's health benefits?

Clinical studies demonstrating benefits for women used 20-30ml (approximately 1.5-2 tablespoons) daily of standard extra virgin olive oil containing approximately 500mg/kg polyphenols. For menstrual pain, 25ml daily starting 2 weeks before menstruation proved effective. For general anti-inflammatory and metabolic benefits (relevant to PCOS, menopause, cardiovascular health), 20-30ml daily consumed consistently provides optimal effects.

However, what matters physiologically is the total polyphenol dose rather than volume. The dysmenorrhea study using 25ml standard EVOO (~200mg/kg) delivered approximately 5mg total polyphenols daily. This same polyphenol dose could come from:

• 25ml oil at 500mg/kg concentration

• 12ml oil at 1000mg/kg concentration

• 5ml oil at 2300mg/kg concentration

  
  

For women concerned about caloric intake (25ml = 220 calories), higher concentration oils deliver therapeutic polyphenol doses in smaller volumes. Start with 10-15ml if using standard EVOO and concerned about digestive adjustment, increasing gradually over 1-2 weeks. With ultra-high phenolic oils (>1000mg/kg), 5-7ml provides comparable polyphenol content to clinical study doses.

Is olive oil safe during menopause?

Yes, olive oil is safe and potentially beneficial during menopause. Research specifically on postmenopausal women shows olive polyphenols improve quality of life related to menopausal symptoms, support bone health (increasing osteocalcin by 30%), and help manage metabolic changes associated with hormonal transition⁴⁶. The Mediterranean diet—with olive oil as primary fat source—reduces metabolic syndrome development during menopause⁵. Unlike hormone replacement therapy, olive oil carries no increased cancer risk and provides cardiovascular protection particularly important as women's cardiovascular risk increases after menopause.

Can olive oil help with PCOS?

Research shows olive oil consumption as part of Mediterranean dietary patterns improves metabolic markers in women with polycystic ovary syndrome. A 10-week study using 25ml daily olive oil in PCOS patients demonstrated improved fatty liver severity and decreased insulin resistance (HOMA-IR)⁷. Broader evidence shows Mediterranean diet adherence correlates with approximately 30% improvement in insulin sensitivity in PCOS—a critical factor since insulin resistance affects 50-75% of PCOS patients and contributes to anovulation and hyperandrogenism⁸. The anti-inflammatory effects of olive oil polyphenols may help reduce chronic inflammation that disrupts ovarian function in PCOS.

What's the best time to take olive oil for women's health?

While clinical studies haven't specifically tested timing, practical considerations suggest:

For menstrual pain: Take 25ml daily starting 2 weeks before expected period through first 2-3 days of menstruation. Can be taken anytime during day but consistency matters more than specific timing.

For general health: Morning on empty stomach may enhance absorption, but taking with meals is perfectly acceptable and may improve digestive tolerance.

For PCOS/metabolic support: Incorporate into meals as primary dietary fat. The key is consistency—daily consumption over weeks and months produces cumulative anti-inflammatory effects that single doses cannot achieve.

Can I cook with olive oil or must I take it raw?

For maximum health benefits, consume olive oil raw (salad dressings, finishing oil, direct consumption) to preserve all polyphenols. Heating to cooking temperatures (300-350°F / 150-175°C) will destroy the polyphenols, However, the clinical studies showing benefits for menstrual pain and menopause used raw consumption (25ml taken directly or added to food). The most effective strategy: take your daily health dose (10-15ml) raw, then use any olive oil freely for cooking.

Will results be immediate for menopause symptoms or period pain?

Effects vary by condition but are not instantaneous. For menstrual pain, the clinical trial showed pain reduction was noticeable in the first treatment month, with maximum benefit by the second month². This suggests effects accumulate over multiple menstrual cycles. For menopause symptoms, the olive leaf extract study found quality of life improvements after 6 weeks of daily supplementation⁴. For metabolic improvements in PCOS, 10 weeks showed significant changes⁷. The mechanism—reducing chronic inflammation—requires consistent daily consumption rather than producing immediate on-demand effects like pharmaceutical interventions. Patience and consistency are essential.

Is there any difference between olive oil varieties for women's health?

Yes, polyphenol content varies significantly between olive varieties, harvest timing, and processing methods. Clinical studies used "extra virgin olive oil" without specifying varieties, but we know: Certain varieties (Kalamon, Coratina, Koroneiki, Picual) naturally produce higher polyphenol oils. Earlier harvest (greener olives) yields more polyphenols but more bitter taste. Polyphenol content ranges from 50mg/kg (supermarket) to 200+mg/kg (quality EVOO) to 500+mg/kg (selected high-phenolic oils). For therapeutic benefits observed in studies, use extra virgin olive oil with polyphenol content >500mg/kg minimum. Higher polyphenol oils provide enhanced anti-inflammatory effects.

Can postmenopausal women benefit from olive oil?

Yes, research specifically shows benefits for postmenopausal women. Studies demonstrate olive polyphenols improve menopausal quality of life, support bone health by increasing osteocalcin (bone formation protein), reduce cardiovascular risk factors, and help manage metabolic syndrome that develops or worsens after menopause⁴⁵⁶. The Mediterranean diet—with olive oil as cornerstone—has been studied extensively in postmenopausal populations with consistent cardiovascular and metabolic benefits. Given that cardiovascular disease becomes women's leading cause of death after menopause, olive oil's cardioprotective effects are particularly valuable in this life stage.

Conclusion

Clinical evidence demonstrates that olive oil—particularly extra virgin varieties with meaningful polyphenol content—offers specific benefits for women's hormonal and metabolic health. The mechanism centers on oleocanthal's COX enzyme inhibition, producing anti-inflammatory effects relevant to dysmenorrhea, PCOS, menopause symptoms, and cardiovascular risk factors that affect women differently across life stages.

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Key implementation principles:

• Consistency matters more than perfect timing—daily consumption over weeks and months

• Consume raw when possible to preserve all polyphenols

• Choose oils with harvest dates within past year

• Verify polyphenol content through laboratory testing

• For menstrual pain specifically, begin consumption 2 weeks before expected menstruation

While olive oil shows promise as supportive nutrition therapy, it is not a replacement for medical treatment when needed. Women with PCOS, severe dysmenorrhea, or complicated menopausal transitions should work with healthcare providers to develop comprehensive treatment plans that may include olive oil alongside other evidence-based interventions.

For more information about polyphenol testing, concentration differences, and the science behind therapeutic doses, visit the complete guide to high-phenolic olive oil.

Scientific References

1. Beauchamp GK, Keast RSJ, Morel D, Lin J, Pika J, Han Q, Lee CH, Smith AB 3rd, Breslin PAS. Phytochemistry: ibuprofen-like activity in extra-virgin olive oil. Nature. 2005 Sep 1;437(7055):45-6. DOI: 10.1038/437045a ↩ ↩² ↩³

2. Akhlaghi M, Ghasemi Nasab M, Riasatian M, Sadeghi F. The impact of extra virgin olive oil on primary dysmenorrhea in comparison to the ibuprofen. Der Pharmacia Lettre. 2015;7(10):124-129. ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵

3. Chen YH, Fu SH, Chiang CY, Wu CC, Wu YJ, Wu TY, Chen YC, Lin YT, Lee YJ, Li CC, Pan CH. The Inhibitory Effect of Extra Virgin Olive Oil and Its Active Compound Oleocanthal on Prostaglandin-Induced Uterine Hypercontraction and Pain-Ex Vivo and In Vivo Study. Nutrients. 2020 Sep 30;12(10):3012. DOI: 10.3390/nu12103012 ↩ ↩²

4. Zhao J, van der Does Y, Draijer R, Woerdeman J, Zock PL, van Wietmarschen H. Olive Leaf Extract Supplementation Improves Postmenopausal Symptoms: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Parallel Study on Postmenopausal Women. Nutrients. 2024 Nov 24;16(23):4013. DOI: 10.3390/nu16234013 ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴ ↩⁵ ↩⁶

5. Moran LJ, Tsagareli V, Noakes M, Norman R. Diet to Reduce the Metabolic Syndrome Associated with Menopause. The Logic for Olive Oil. Nutrients. 2020 Oct 18;12(10):3184. DOI: 10.3390/nu12103184 ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

6. Filip R, Possemiers S, Heyerick A, Pinheiro I, Raszewski G, Davicco MJ, Coxam V. Twelve-month consumption of a polyphenol extract from olive (Olea europaea) in a double blind, randomized trial increases serum total osteocalcin levels and improves serum lipid profiles in postmenopausal women with osteopenia. Journal of Nutrition, Health and Aging. 2015;19(1):77-86. ↩ ↩² ↩³

7. Amini MR, Sheikhhossein F, Bazshahi E, Sayyari AA, Djafarian K, Shab-Bidar S. The effects of canola and olive oils consumption compared to sunflower oil, on lipid profile and hepatic steatosis in women with polycystic ovarian syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. Lipids in Health and Disease. 2021 Jan 29;20(1):10. DOI: 10.1186/s12944-021-01433-9 ↩ ↩² ↩³ ↩⁴

8. International Olive Council. This week on OHIS: Mediterranean Diet and PCOS. January 10, 2025. Available at: https://www.internationaloliveoil.org/this-week-on-ohis-40/ ↩ ↩² ↩³

9. Covas MI, Nyyssönen K, Poulsen HE, et al. The effect of polyphenols in olive oil on heart disease risk factors: a randomized trial. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2006;145(5):333-41. ↩ ↩²

10. Hernáez Á, Remaley AT, Farràs M, et al. Olive Oil Polyphenols Decrease LDL Concentrations and LDL Atherogenicity in Men in a Randomized Controlled Trial. Journal of Nutrition. 2015 Aug;145(8):1692-7. DOI: 10.3945/jn.115.211557 ↩ ↩²

11. Maverick Oils. Oils That Are PCOS-Friendly and the Ones You Should Avoid. April 14, 2021. Available at: https://maverikoils.com/oils-that-are-pcos-friendly-and-the-ones-you-should-avoid/ ↩